# The Koreans of Kazakstan:an llustrated history

Аноним Akk

40

The Association of the Koreans of Kazakstan


THE KOREANS OF KAZAKSTAN: AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY


CONTENTS


1. The History of Relations Between Korea and Kazakstan


2. The First Korean Immigrants to the Russian Far East


3. The First Evidence of Koreans in Kazakstan


4. Koreans in Kazakstan in the Early 20th Century


5. The Korean Liberation Movement in the Far East


6. A Korean Agricultural Work Artel': "Kazak Rice" ("KAZRIS"), 1928


7. Deportation


8. World War II


9. The Post-War Period


10. The Beginnings of the National Revival


11. Approaching 60 Years on the Territory of Kazakstan


12. The Korean Theatre


13. The Korean Media


14. Approaching the 21st Century


15. Bibliography


The Association of the Koreans of Kazakstan


THE KOREANS OF KAZAKSTAN: AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY


AUTHORS:


G.V. Kan - Chief of the Authors' Collective, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor.


V.I. An - Photo Editor.


G.N. Kim - Candidate of Historical Sciences, Docent.


D.V. Men - Candidate of Philosophical Sciences, Docent.


EDITORIAL COLLECTIVE:


G.V. Khan - Chief of Editorial Board


Members of Editorial Board: Iu.A. Kim, L.P. Ni, I.T. Pak, Al.Iu. Khegai, Ap.Iu. Khegai.


SPONSOR OF PUBLICATION: Iu.A. Tskhai, President of the Association of the Koreans of Kazakstan.


╘ G.V. Kan, V.I. An, G.N. Kim. D.V. Men, 1997.


Translation of Text into Korean: Jang Won - Chang, Republic of Korea

Avanced Instructor,

Kazak State University

in the Name of Al'-Farabi

M.A. in Politology University of Paris-10

Translation of Text into English: Sean R. Roberts

PhD Candidate in Cultural Anthropology,

University of Southern California

Visiting Researcher,

Institute of Oriental Studies,

The Academy of Sciences of

The Republic of Kazakstan


In 1997, the Koreans of Kazakstan celebrated 60 years of living on the territory of Kazakstan. Among Koreans, one's 60 anniversary marks the completion of the first cycle of a person's life ("Khangab") after which begins the cycle of "Kokhyo," the age of maturity when one can look back on their earlier years and analyze them in preparation for mapping out the rest of their life.

The 1930s, 40s, and 50s were years of persecution and repression for Koreans in Kazakstan. But, thanks to our own persistence and work as well as the help and humanistic acts of the Kazaks, we lived through them.

In turn, Koreans succeeded in taking an active role in the development of Kazakstan's economy, culture, arts, sports, and academic and educational institutions.

This book is being published by the Association of the Koreans of Kazakstan. It is the work of several young and talanted scholars of Korean Studies: Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor G.V. Kan, Candidate of Historical Sciences, G.N. Kim, Candidate of Philosophical Sciences, D.V. Men, and the well known photographer V. An.

The authors of the book, working under the premise that there is not a people without their own history, have produced a genuinely vivid history of the lives of the Korean people of Kazakstan.

The book's publication is an important event in the social lives of all peoples in Kazakstan. Its authors deserve the highest praise and recognition.

It is our hope that this book will become a standard part of the library of every Kazakstani patriot!


Chief of Editorial Board, Professor G.B. Khan.


Dear Compatriots of Kazakstan,


It is with great anticipation and responsibility that I present to you this book. It surveys 60 years of history (1937-97), marking a special milestone in the lives of the Koreans of Kazakstan. It is the social responsibility of each of us to know this history.

Before you, you will witness the tragic history of a people who have undergone a massive and tortuous resettlement followed by years of repression. But, along with this, you will find a history of courage and persistence, of heroic will and mutual assistance. It is a history that reflects the genuine friendship and sincere mutual aid of not only Kazaks and Koreans, but of all of the people of Kazakstan's multi-national society. This we have tried to convey through the concept, text, photographs, and illustrations of this book. Its goal, through the use of the most reliable of materials, is to reflect the historical connections that Koreans have had with Kazakstan - the horror of deportation as well as the joys of significant periods in the lives of Koreans on the territory of Kazakstan.

Regard this book as a symbolic bow in the memory of our elders, the deeds of whom we owe the preservation of the good name of our people.

The Association of the Koreans of Kazakstan wishes to express its utmost gratitude to those whose blood and sweat have made this history. We are certain that it will find a worthy continuation. We will be assured by the wisdom that without a past, there is no present.


President of the Association of the Koreans of Kazakstan,

Iu.A. Tskhai


1. THE HISTORY OF RELATIONS BETWEEN KOREA AND KAZAKSTAN


Histories do not arise from nothing; they always have their own specific foundations. The history of the Koreans of Kazakstan is of no exception, being founded on connections between Korea and the region of Central Asia and Kazakstan that can be traced back for centuries.

There are many milestones in the ancient connections between Korea and Kazakstan. First, we will explore the question of the ethnogenesis of the Korean people. The results of archaeological work show that the Korean peninsula was inhabited by people in the early paleolithic period. In addition, most scholars argue that the direct descendents of the modern Korean people can be traced to a far earlier date in the neolithic period. Anthropological and linguistic research, along with evidence from oral epics, asserts that the ethnic origins of the Koreans can be traced to peoples who inhabited the Altaic mountains and the neighboring regions of Central Asia. Historians have also remarked on the existence of a large and powerful state in the sixth century that was founded in the Altai and controlled areas from the Korean peninsula to the banks of the Black Sea.

In 1965, archeologists uncovered frescos in the royal palace of Afrisiab in Samarkand (present-day Uzbekistan) which were dated as being from the last decade of the seventh century. These frescos, which were painted with splendor and in bright colors, depict some of the more important events in the life of the Afrisiab royalty. One of the frescos portrays the ceremonial reception of foreign ambassadors. In the center before the king and his courtiers stands the Chinese ambassador, to his left is the ambassador from Chaganiana (a state in the Surkhandariya river basin), and to his right are the figures of two groups of ambassadors - one from Chacha (Tashkent) and one from Korea.

It is also known that in 727, the Korean monk Khechkho traveled to Central Asia. Furthermore, at the Battle of Talas which took place not far from Taraz in the summer of 751 and was fought between the Arabs and Chinese for their respective influence in Central Asia, the commander of the Chinese troops was an ethnic Korean by the name of General Gao Sizn'-chzhi (Ko Son Chzhi in Korean). Like the slave-warriors of the Mamluks and Gulams Sultan Beybars and Muzaffar Iltutmish or the natives of the Kipchak steppes who willfully accepted the difficult fate of working and serving in Egypt and the Deli Sultanate, Ko Son Chzhi, the son of the Koguruo military commander Ko Sa Ge, had a stellar career in the Tang empire. In the historical chronicles of the period it is even suggested that prisoners of war from the ranks of Ko Son Chzhi's army who worked as craftsmen brought the technology of making paper to the Arab countries. In any event, it is written that in the Muslim countries, these prisoners of war "made paper and silk."

Then, up to the 19th century, there is very little evidence of Korean relations with Central Asia. Isolation was characteristic of Korea at this time leading many scholars of Asia to call it "the recluse country" and "the forbidden country." Thus, the history of Korean relations with the region only reemerged in the 19th century when waves of Korean emigrants appeared in the Russian Far East, some of whom traveled as far as Kazakstan.


2. THE FIRST KOREAN IMMIGRANTS TO THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST


As a result of insufferable conditions under the rule of Japanese colonialism, many Koreans found shelter in the Far East of Russia. In the 1860s, Korean immigrants founded a series of communities in the Primorskii region of the Russian empire. Having been forced to abandon their native land, they did not easily adapt to a new one, but they did live in close proximity to each other, preserving their traditional sources of livelihood as well as their customs, language, and culture.

The first Korean immigrants appeared in the Russian Far East during the late 1850s and early 1860s. They settled in the Tizinkhe, Sidimi, and Yanchikhe river valleys and immediately began to practice agriculture. The Russian administration of the Primorskii region used the help of these Koreans to populate and develop this territory. They remarked that Koreans could initiate agriculture in this area and provide an inexpensive source of labor as leasers of land and farm hands for the Russian peasantry and the Cossacks. Furthermore, the Koreans could help provide products and arms for the area's military garrisons.

In 1868, there was a massive migration of Koreans to the Primorskii region. The Russians rulers decided to settle these immigrants along lake Khanka and in the Suifun river valley.

During the fall of 1869, the north of the Korean peninsula suffered a terrible draught which devasted its crops and forced more Koreans to flee to the Primorskii area. These immigrants settled in the city of Vladivostok as well as in the Daubikhe and Suifun river valleys and along the gulf of Ol'ga.

The attitude of the local population towards the Koreans varied. In addition to the attempts by the local population to save the immigrants from starvation by offering them shelter and food, the Koreans also encountered violence and discrimination.

In the Russian Far East, the Koreans did not only practice agriculture. They also worked in construction helping to build the port of Vladivostok and the South-Ussuri railway as well as in the coal mines of Pos'et and in the clear-cutting of forests.

By the early 1870s, Koreans had established commuities in the Suifun, Lefu, Daubikhe, and Suchan river valleys. There also appeared a series of new Korean communities in Korsakovka, Putsilovka, Sinel'nikovo, and elsewhere. At the same time, Koreans began to populate the Amur oblast' which the Russian administration was also very interested in developing with the help of the immigrant population. There, Koreans founded the village of Blagoslovennoe and settled in area of Blagoveschenska harbor.

Developing new lands in the Primorskii and Priamurskii regions, Korean communities primarily survived through the production of bread, hunting, and fishing. According to M. Putsillo, an expert on the Korean immigrants who in addition to working for the Tsarist administration was the author of the first Russian-Korean dictionary, "the Koreans distinguished themselves through their laborous and good lifestyle."

Gradually, schools were opened for the Korean children in the Harbor cities of Pos'et, Tizinkhe, and Blagoveschenka. In Irkutsk and Blagoveschenka, Koreans were also educated in craft workshops, religious seminaries, and other educational institutions. A few Koreans even studied in Saint Petersburg.

In the 1880s and 1890s, the Koreans received the right to register as citizens of the Russian empire under the terms of a Russo-Korean treaty determining their status.

The events of the early 19th century, particularly the Russo-Japanese war and the establishment of Korea as a Japanese protectorate, helped to propel a significant emigration of Koreans to the Russian Far East. The number of Korean immigrants to the area grew by the thousands, taking the sea route from Pusan to Vladivostok and the overland route across the river Tumangan. Furthermore, some Koreans found other routes to Russian territory that brought them through Chinese territory.

By the early 19th century, Koreans represented a significant population in Vladivostok, Khabarovsk, Nikolaevsk, Nikol'sk-Ussuri, Iman, Ol'ga, Blagoveschensk, Chita, and numerous other places in the region. Further emigration to Russian territory was motivated by the annexation of Korea by Japan.


3. THE FIRST EVIDENCE OF KOREANS IN KAZAKSTAN


The first official documentation of Koreans living on the territory of Central Asia and Kazakstan was the first general census of the Russian Empire in 1897. According to the census, small pockets of Koreans lived on the territory of contemporary Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan. In particular, they lived in the Kokand and Namangan Uezds as well as in the cities of Namangan, Prezhevalsk, and Pishpek (now Bishkek). A comparatively larger number lived in Kazakstan. In particular, Koreans lived in the Vernji Uezd of the Semirech'e oblast' and in the Jarkent Uezd as well as in the cities of Jarkent and Vernji (now Almaty). Koreans were also documented as inhabitants of the city of Aulie-Ata (now Taraz) in the Syrdariya oblast' as well as in the Perovskii Uezd (now Kyzyl-Orda Oblast') and in the Akmola Oblast'. The Koreans were included in the 7th section of the census which indicated "The Distribution of Foreign Born Inhabitants by Birthplace." Here, their birthplace was marked as Korea. Likewise, in the 8th section, "Distribution by Native Language," they were marked as native speakers of Korean. However, already by that time, they were not included in the 11th section which showed the distribution of foreign nationals.


4. KOREANS IN KAZAKSTAN IN THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY


A more intensive emigration of Koreans into Kazakstan began in the early 20th century when simultaneously Japan's colonial policy in Korea became more intensive and Russo-Japanese relations had deteriorated to the point that war broke out between the two countries. Despite the fact that at the beginning of the war Korea had a policy of neutrality, Japan had already brought part of its military arsenal to Korea making the country a launching point from which to wage war with Russia. Thus, Korea was involuntarily brought into the war, and given that any form of anti-Japanese sentiment in the country was actively repressed, Koreans found themselves caught between a rock and a hard place. The Japanese repressed the Korean national liberation movement inside Korea with force, and the Russian Tsarist administration, like their Soviet counterparts would later do, started to suspect Koreans of complicity in Japanese espionage. The Koreans of the Russian Far East, therefore, suffered decades of humiliation through undeserved accusations of Japanese espionage.

In 1904-1905, hundreds of Koreans along with others of the "yellow-race," were exiled from the Far East to policed camps further within Russian territory by the Tsarist administration "in connection with preventative measures against possible misfortunes," as it was cautiously stated in the documents of the period. They were exiled to Tomsk, Perm', Penzu, and other Siberian cities close to and bordering on present-day Kazakstan. Others were brought through Kazakstan on the Trans-Siberian railway en-route to their place of exile. Thus, it is not surprising that many eventually settled in Kazakstan itself.

In the Central State Archives of the Republic of Kazakstan exist documents about the Koreans living in the region at this time. They elucidate about their activities, their daily lives, about the process of their naturalization as Russian citizens, and about the Tsarist administration's surveillance of them and accusations against them.

Most of the Koreans in Russia were baptized since from the beginning of their emigration to Russian territory there was a campaign "to direct resources towards the immediate 'Russification' and assimilation of them into the local population." In the pursuit of this goal, the first step was their acceptance of the Russian Orthodox Christian religion, membership in which was seen as the equivilant of Russian citizenship. Koreans were also given Russian names and forbidden to wear traditional clothing and hair-styles. Some examples of the Russification of Korean names are as follows: Iu-On-Po became Vladimir Rafailovich Popov, Kim-Chu-I became Feodor, Chan-Khani became Alexandr Litvinov, Bak-poshi became Vasilii, Kisi-ne-pek became Vasilii Nikolaevich Pikhtovnikov, An-in-sep-i became Savrasov Alexandr Romanovich, and so on.

Professionally, Koreans worked as launderers, barbers, traders, craftsmen, day laborers, manufacturers of cigarettes and cigarette paper, doctors, landlords, and the administrators of small Korean institutions. It is difficult to judge the extent of Korean social organizations at the time, but it is known that there existed a Korean Society of the City of Harbin.

Thus, between Koreans and Kazakstan there are a string of historical connections that sprung from specific events in history, many of which were misfortunate.


5. THE KOREAN LIBERATION MOVEMENT IN THE FAR EAST


The October revolution of 1917 with its slogans of justice, freedom, and equality inspired laborers to work for the establishment of Soviet power and offered the hope of a bright future. The Koreans of the Russian Far East met the revolution with enthusiasm, hope, and expectation. Without fear, many became active participants in the struggle for Soviet power. Furthermore, that struggle became closely connected to their own national liberation movement. One only has to point to the development of the Korean national independence movement to see the connections. When the First of March movement for Korean independence began in 1919, its first temporary government was founded in Vladivlastok on March 21st. Only later was its headquarters moved to Shanghai on April 11th and finally to Seoul on the 21st of April. The Korean partisan units fought courageously with undying honor. Hundreds of Korean partisans gave their lives for the cause. The names of such legendary figures as Khon Bom Do, A.P. Kim-Stankevich, Kim Iu-Chen, and many others will remain in the memories and hearts of their descendents eternally.

The life of national hero Khon Bom Do was closely tied to the fate of the Korean people at the turn of the century. He was born on August 27, 1868 in Pyongyang. Beginning in 1894, he became one of the organizers of the national liberation movement against Japanese colonialists in a number of Korea's provinces. In 1913, he fled Japanese persecution and emigrated to the Russian Far East. Between 1919 and 1921, he was the commander of a military unit of "self-commanded" voluteers. He fought both against the Japanese and the Tsarist white troops in northern Manchuria and on Soviet territory. In 1921 in Irkutsk, he was named the commander of the 1st battalion of Korean brigidirs for the 5th army in which capacity he served until 1922. He met with V.I. Lenin in Moscow, was a decorated soldier, and in 1927 became a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. When the state began building "kolkhozes" (collective farms), he became a member of the commune "The Stars of Khanka." In 1937, he was deported with his people to Kyzyl Orda in Kazakstan where he died lonely and poor on October 25, 1943 at the age of 75. He was only rehabilitated 41 years after his death in 1984 when, as a Korean national hero, his bust was placed on his grave.

A.P. Kim-Stankevich was another hero of the national liberation movement in the Far East. She was the People's Commisar of Foreign Affairs for the Far Eastern Republic, the Secretary of the Khabarovsk City Party Organization, and an organizer of the Korean Socialist Party. In 1918, she was executed on the banks of the Amur. According to certain sources, in the last minutes of her life, she took 13 steps stating that they were for the 13 provinces of Korea. For each province, she willed a flower of freedom to grow in her footsteps. Adding, "I have faith that our descendents will free Korea," she was shot and fell from a cliff into the rapids of the Amur. Even her executioner proclaimed that "a Korean hero has died - an educated woman who gave her life for the freedom of laborers." After the execution, the Japanese counsul asked for a full report on the death of A.P. Kim, showing how dangerous the Japanese saw her as one of the leaders of the Korean liberation movement.

Another central organizer of the liberation movement in the Far East was the representative of the Central Committee of the Korean Socialist Party, Lee Dong Hwi.

To this list of Korean heroes from the Russian Far East, one must also add A.A. Kim, a heroic personality who served as the first secretary of the Pos'et regional committee and as a delegate to the 17th Party Congress of the Bolsheviks. Like so many others, however, he was executed during the Stalinist repression in 1938. A similar unfortunate fate met M.M. Kim who also was a delegate to the 17th Party Congress as well as the head of the political department of the Sun Yat Sen kolkhoz.

There are many more who should be mentioned such as Kim Nakkhen who fought in a partisan military unit in the lower Amur river valley and participated in the battle to liberate Nikolaevsk-on-the-Amur, and Khvan Un Den who fought both in the war against Japanese intervention in Korea and in the Russian Far East.


6. A KOREAN AGRICULTURAL WORK ARTEL': "KAZAK RICE" ("KAZRIS"), 1928


The first census of the population of the USSR after the establishment of Soviet power was in 1926. According to its information, only a few dozen Koreans lived in the Akmolinsk, Semipalatinsk, and Syrdariya oblast's while even fewer lived in Karaganda, Kyzyl-Orda, and other regions of Kazakstan. Koreans were also scattered throughout Tashkent, the Tashkent oblast', and in the areas of Bukhara and Surkhanariya in Uzbekistan as well as in Kyrgystan.

The early history of the Koreans of Soviet Kazakstan is marked by a voluntary and well organized immigration to the area which significantly increased the number of Koreans in the area. This immigration was connected with state efforts to develop the rice growing industry of the republic in the 1920s. In the second half of the 1920s, the Soviet Union was forced to develop their cotton growing industry in an effort to make the country "cotton independent." This led to a situation where cotton began replacing rice, also a warm weather crop, in many areas. But rice is also a very valuable product. With the ensuing fall in its production, rice became short in supply. To remedy this situation, the state decided to reserve the southern most lands of Central Asia for cotton production, making the northern borders of cotton producing land the southern borders of rice producing land. Since Kazakstan represented the northern borderlands of Central Asia's cotton production, it was decided to bring rice producing populations to the area to begin intensive cultivation of rice. After studying the feasibility of Kazakstan for rice growing, it was found that the Semirech'e oblast', particularly in the Alma-Ata region had the best land for this purpose. Furthermore, this area was at the northern outreaches of cotton producing lands and had good transportation connections to the rest of the USSR through the Turkestan-Siberian railway. By 1928, the question of developing rice production had become of central importance to Kazakstan. The head organizer for the project of developing rice cultivation in the Republic was even given to Turar Ryskulov, the distinguished revolutionary and manager of the construction of the Turk-Sib railway.

While in the planning stages, one of the central questions concerning the rice cultivation project remained the problem of finding adequate specialists who knew how to grow the crop. In the Republic, officials began studying the examples of rice production in other regions of the Soviet Union. Their research found that the most experienced rice producers in the country were the Koreans of the Far East. It was decided that "Kazakstan must follow the example of the Far East in developing rice cultivation." In the Far East, Koreans rented land in order to grow rice as share-croppers, and the situation for them in Kazakstan would be much better. Thus, officials in the Republican apparatus felt that this situation could "draw Koreans to emigrate to Kazakstan." Thus, it was decided to invite Koreans to Kazakstan to pass on their knowledge of rice cultivation. In the spring of 1928, by invitation of the People's Commisariat on Land Cultivation, 70 Korean families, over 300 people, were brought to the Semirech'e area of Kazakstan from the Vladivostok region of the Russian Far East. For them, the Republican administration organized the "Korean Agricultral Work Artel' 'Kazak Rice' (KAZRIS)." Already in January of 1929, Koreans started to replace other crops in the area by seeding fields with rice. By 1931, Kazakstan had become the leader of rice production in the Soviet Union.


7. DEPORTATION


Koreans living in the Russian Far East in the 1920s and 1930s had developed into a strong social group with their own traditions that had great economic, political, social, and cultural potential.

In the Far East, there were several Korean agricultural and fishing kolkhozes. There were primarily Korean villages and Korean national "SelSoviets." Koreans also actively took part in the activities of state and social organizations at all levels in the region.

The national culture and language was developing at rapid speed, and a strong group of Korean intellectuals had been formed. There were newspapers and journals in the Korean language as well as a Korean publishing house, Korean radio programing , and a Korean theatre. There were Korean sections in universities, in pedogogical and technical institutes, and in state cultural institutions.

Hundreds of Korean intellectuals were educated in the universities of Moscow and Leningrad, Blagveschensk and Khabarovsk, Vladivostok and Irkutsk, Omsk and Tomsk, Sverdlovsk and Voronezh, Saratov and other cities. Analysis of the scholarly literature published in the Far East by Korean authors in the years preceeding the deportation show that they actively studied questions of language, cultural traditions, agriculture and fishing as well as issues of social, political, and historical significance to the USSR.

The mass forcible deportation of Koreans from the Far East to Central Asia and Kazakstan, however, was not without preparation. Already in 1935, individual Koreans were repressed as "enemies of the people" and sent into exile to islands on the Aral sea. These individuals were accused of participating in fractional struggles and of establishing various illegal organizations.

In 1937, the mass media in the Far East under the guidance of the central organs of propaganda began raising the question of Japanese espionage in the area and the possible role of local Koreans in this spy network. However, in explaining the reasons for the mass deportation of Koreans one must realize that primarily the Koreans were used as a pawn in the Soviet state's geo-politics in the Far East and in the Asian-Pacific in general.

Suddenly, despite their long struggle with Japanese colonialism, with one stroke of a pen all Koreans, under the assumption that they were all responsible for the nationality's activities as a whole, were accused without legal procedure of spying for the Japanese and were forcibly exiled. To understand the gravity of this act, one only has to look at the sad fate of the Korean national hero "iron" Khon Bom Do who, upon arriving in Kyzyl Orda, had to use the husks of rice kernals to make the porridge on which he survived. In his final years, he lived poorly and without meaning like his entire repressed nationality, working as a night watchman at an already doomed Korean pedogological institute.

This deportation was an act of genocide by a totalitarian regime waged against its own citizens. The act of holding an entire ethnic group responsible for actions was determined by the UN as the major principle behind genocide under the international convention "About the Determination of Genocide and its Recourses" which was ratified by all members of the UN on December 9, 1948. Furthermore, on April 26, 1991, the Russian Republic of the USSR ratified the act "The Law of the RSFSR Concerning the Rehabilitation of Repressed Nationalities." In this law, it was written that the deportation of entire ethnic groups had represented "the state politics of slander and genocide through the forcible exile of peoples and the subjegation of them to terror and violence in their places of exile."

The fate of the Koreans of the Russian Far East was sealed by a directive of the Sovnarkom of the USSR and the Central Committee of the Communist Party on August 21, 1937 when these two organs of state power ratified an act concerning the exile of the Koreans of the area in order to stop Japanese espionage activities. To the places from which they were exiled, the Soviet government sent "wagons of relocation." In a short time, all Koreans were put on these wagons and allowed to bring with them only their clothing and enough food for the month long relocation process. All those of Korean ancestry including the sick, the elderly, and the pregnant women were put on these wagons, usually meant for the transportation of goods and livestock, and were sent thousands of kilometers into the depths of the USSR.

The places to which they were sent were carefully watched by the secret police. Documents from the period show numerous accounts of repression and physical torture at the time of deportation. Hundreds of Koreans were arrested at the time of deportation or in the trains and had to serve their sentences in the places to which they were relocataed. These breaches of human rights were continued in Kazakstan once the deportees had been resettled. Many of the places to which they were sent were made into makeshift prisoner camps or "gulags": Noril'lag, Siblag, Kargopol'lag, Soroklag, The North Railway Lag, and Viatlag. There are also numerous documents that tell about the trials of Koreans at meetings of the NKVD where they were charged with criminal activities as "Japanese agents."

Koreans were transported in railway wagons meant for goods and livestock which were not fit for humans. Many wagons had broken windows or no windows at all, and their roofs were made of wood which made them especially cold for those who had to travel in the bitter months of winter. The wagons were also overfilled, and often members of the same family were forced to travel in separate trains. With the added stress of having lost their homes and being uncertain about there destinations, it is not surprising that in these conditions many fell severely ill. The gigant tragic caravan of train wagons carried the deported Koreans from one end of Asia to the other, from Vladivostok to Tashkent. Many of the wagons had unknown destinations and unknown passangers, earning the name of "ghost-trains." As had been the case throughout the deportation process, the Koreans were watched closely on the trains by agents of the secret police. The sickness that fell on the passangers during their relocation especially affected children leading to a 60% death rate among the youngest.

In the last days of September 1937, the first train of deported Koreans reached Kazakstan beginning a new era in the history of the Koreans of Kazakstan. The Kazaks welcomed the Koreans and helped them to get through their difficult early days in Kazakstan despite official state measures to prevent such help. The Kazaks could understand the plight of the deportees having themselves just undergone a tragic famine known as "Little October" which, over the course of the 1930s, claimed some 2.2 million lives. Remembering his first days in Kazakstan, the well known Korean rice cultivator Kim Man Sam noted: "I, along with the other Koreans who came with me, was terribly worried about our fate. We wondered whether these people would welcome us. However, the Kazaks opened up their homes and tables to us. Their generosity is as wide as their steppe. I am not alone in this opinion - all of my friends and family said the same thing."

According to the statistics of the Kazakstan NKVD section of work camps and places of exile, more than 90 trains brought Koreans to Kazakstan from the Far East carrying 20,789 Korean families making up 98,454 people.

The mass forcible relocation of Koreans from one end of Asia to the other destroyed the "root system" that fed the soul of the Korean people. Transported from one land to another as different as the respective shores of the Pacific Ocean and the Caspian Sea, the Koreans of the USSR suffered a great loss. In this sense, it might be said that the Soviet Koreans taken as a whole embodied the fate of all of the peoples who have lived under totalitarian regimes.

The Koreans who were deported to Kazakstan underwent two stages of relocation. The first took place between the fall of 1937 and the spring of 1938 when they were brought to Kazakstan. During this period, they made the long trip from the Far East and were settled temporarily in warehouses and other temporary living quarters such as empty factories, non-working mosques, former prisons, etc. They primarily lived on the clothing and small sources of food they had brought with them. Thus, during that first winter, they suffered terribly from hunger, cold, and mass sickness. In these conditions, many died, especially among the elderly and the women and children.

The spring of 1938 marked the beginning of the second stage of their relocation when the Koreans who had come to Kazakstan, 60% of the entire population of Korean deportees, were sent to their new permanent homes. They were sent throughout the Republic forcing them to undertake another exodus that ranged from 20 kilometers on dirt roads to 4000 kilometers by rail. Most were sent to what was now uninhabited land, land yet to be cultivated, or to former collective farms depopulated by the famine of the 1930s. Others were settled on existing Kazak kolkhozes. As a result of the relocation, 70 new Korean rice and fish collective farms were created. Other Koreans were settled onto 203 already existing kolkhozes that had anywhere from one to 20 Korean families. Furthermore, other Koreans were sent to live on 91 "sovkhozes" (state farms) and other industrial collectives such as tractor factories, building material plants, mines, etc.

It could be said that in addition to these two stages of relocation, there was a third "unofficial" stage. Despite officially being forbiden to do so, Koreans throughout Kazakstan found ways to search out their families, friends, and relatives who had been spread throughout the Republic. In doing so, they tried to regain the life they had been forced to leave in the Far East. In this sense, one can say that the Korean deportees were far from passive compliers with the fate they had been handed. The Koreans of Kazakstan never gave up despite having suffered brutal arrests and ravage epidemics of typhoid, dissentry, malaria, scurvy, and measels.

In Kazakstan, the Koreans found themselves in an unfamiliar environment and climate. It was difficult to adapt from the soft humid climate on the shores of the Pacific Ocean to the sharp continental climate of the steppe with its hot summers and dry cold winters. They had to learn to make the quick transition from warm to cold and to bear the bitter northern winds of Kazakstan. According to the secret police records, many of the areas to which Koreans were sent did not even have horses to help with the heavy labor of the collective farms they inhabited. Added to these conditions was the stress that the deportees had to bear as they adapted to living among unfamiliar ethnic groups in a foreign social structure and foreign language conditions. A further tragedy was that the Koreans who had come from Russia's Far East became completely isolated from their historical homeland of Korea. According to historical sources in the Russian language, in the Far East, "Koreans were close to their past - there, the climate and soil was almost identical to that which they had experienced in their homeland; they did not have to learn much from the local Russian peasants who inhabited the area, but the Russians learned much about utilizing the local land from them."

As a result of the repression and deportation, the Koreans also lost alot in the realms of education, culture, and language. In accordance with the state directive of September 1, 1938, all Korean schools were closed including the Korean pedogogical school in Kazalinsk and the Korean pedigogical institute of Kyzyl Orda. In December of 1939, the Soviet government also ratified the acts "Concerning Korean Literature" and "Concerning the Removal of Literature in the Korean Laguage from Book Stores and Libraries." As a result, the State Committee for the Preservation of Secrets in Print confiscated and destroyed thousands of books in the Korean language including any that the Koreans themselves had brought with them from the Far East. According to available statistics, 120,000 textbooks alone were destroyed including 17,000 textbooks for the study of Korean language and texts for 134 other subjects. At the Korean pedogogical institute in Kyzyl Orda, a large number of rare Korean books were also destroyed.

Still, life continued, and the Koreans found the will and courage to make a life for themselves in their new homeland. In particular, they found that they had the opportunity here to concentrate on agricultural work in which they found great successes. According to the state plan of the first spring during which Koreans lived on Kazakstan soil, the 70 new Korean kolkhozes were expected to seed 26,860 hectares of grain on land plowed by their own work. But, in 1939, they had already succeeded in seeding and harvesting 38,482 hectares. Furthermore, they had succeeded by 1939 in establishing 104 livestock breeding farms. By 1940, in the Kyzyl Orda oblast' alone, Korean collective farms had seeded and harvested 25,026 hectares of land. Likewise, rice cultivation had been almost single-handedly developed in Kazakstan by Koreans. However, these statistics and figures do not even begin to describe the strength of the Koreans of the deportee generation who in the "hungry stepps" founded flowering oases with their own hands. Every acre, hectare, canal, and ditch was labored over by hand with hoes and shovels.


8. WORLD WAR II


As the 1930s gave way to the 1940s, the Koreans of Kazakstan had begun to adapt to their new conditions. Then, on June 22, 1941, their lives, along with those of many others around the world, were once again thrown into turmoil by the beginning of World War II. Despite the humiliation of deportation, the Koreans remained patriots who were ready to help defend their country. However, most were forbidden to take up arms in the war given their status as supposed "Japanese agents." Thus, they joined work brigades, otherwise known as the "Work Army," that kept the country and army alive throughout the war. All the same, many Koreans wanted to join the ranks of the military at the front. During the first hours and days of the war, hundreds of Koreans went to their local "War Committees" asking to be enlisted. Among them, a few were accepted and were sent off to the front. One Korean who served heroically in the war was A.P. Min who was later honored as a "Hero of the Soviet Union." Others included the brave and heroic submarine commander A. Khan, the intelligence officer and junior sargent V. Tsoi, the artillary battalion commander Captain S. Ten, and the machine gun operator M. Ten. In addition to these military heros, one should also remember the honorable service of the senior sargent of the medical corps V. Lim whose long and hard work during four years of duty brought her all the way from Moscow to Berlin. The courage of this woman is demonstrated by her many decorations from the front that read: "For Combat Service," "For Bravery," "For the Defense of Moscow," "For the Liberation of Warsaw," and the Conquest of Berlin." In addition to these special medals, she was also awarded the orders of "The Red Stars" and "The Patriotic War."

Over the course of the war, not only did Kazakstan send hundreds of thousands of its sons and daughters to the front, it also helped substantially in the effort to arm, clothe, and feed the Red Army. Being limited in their opportunities to serve in the army itself, the Koreans of the Republic played a special role in this effort.

Especially heroic were the efforts of Korean collective farm workers who, despite difficult conditions, were able to increase their output and the size of their fields substantially during the war years. Throughout all of Kazakstan, the grain and rice production accomplishments of the Korean kolkhoz "Avant-Guard" in the Chilik raion of the Kyzyl Orda oblast' was well known as was its supervisor Kim Man Sam. Already in 1941, Kim Man Sam was honored with the order of "A Mark of Honour" Under his supervision, the sorting station of his kolkhoz was able to differentiate 21 different types of rice. His "piece de resistance" was realized in 1942 when he broke a world record for rice output producing 15,000 kilograms of rice per hectare. From that time onward, Kim Man Sam's method for the mass production of quality rice was adopted throughout the Republic. He also became something of a folk hero, and a song was even written about him. In 1945-46, he was again honored with medals, receiving the order of "The Red Banner of Labor" twice. In 1947, he received the "Stalin Prize," and in 1949, he was declared a "Hero of Labor." Eleven of his apprentices at the kolkhoz "Avant Guard" also later received the honor of "Hero of Labor" and attributed their successes to his tutorship. He also taught his method to the famed Kazak rice cultivator Ibrai Zhakhaev who, for his work at the neighboring collective farm "Kyzyl-Tu," was a laurate of the "Stalin Prize" and twice a "Hero of Labor."

Similar successes were met by the Korean collective farms of "Gigant," "Bolshevik," and the "Tretiy International" in the Kyzyl Orda oblast' as well as by the kolkhozes "Put Lenina" and " Dalniy Vostok" in the Alma-Ata oblast'. To these collective efforts of work could be added many more.

The particular hard work of Koreans during the War years did not go unnoticed by the state. In the Karatal'skii raion of the Alma-Ata oblast' alone, of the 3,861 people honored with the medal "For Valiant Work During World War II, 1941-1945," over 1,000 were of Korean descent. Furthermore, many Koreans contributed graciously to War funds to help raise money for the building of planes and tanks as well as for bringing resources to the soldiers at the front and helping their families at home. For example, Kim Man Sam gave over his personal savings of 105,000 rubles to the War fund to build a tank column that became named "The Kyzyl Orda Kolkhoznik." Likewise, the representative of the collective farm "Dalni Vostok " Shin Khen Mun gave 120,000 roubles to the War fund.

Together, the Korean collective farms "Bolshevik," "Giant," "Avant-Guard," and "The Canton Commune" donated more than 350,000 roubles and more than 100,000 bonds to the War fun. In addition, they donated 6,000 puds (1 pud=36 pounds) of rice and over 18,000 different items of clothing to be sent to the front.

Many Koreans of Kazakstan during the War also became a part of a large army of labors which was made up primarily of "unfortunate" ethnic groups who, like the Koreans, had been repressed. This army worked primarily in the coal and metal mining industry as well as in other strategically important realms of industry that were essential to the survival of both Kazakstan and the entire Soviet Union. Many Koreans were sent to mines to work in Karaganda, Russia, the Komi ASSR, and other places. During the War years, over 2000 Koreans worked in the coal mines of Karaganda alone. Often they worked aside Volga Germans who were also not trusted in the military and had been likewise exiled to Kazakstan. Their "War Duty" was to fulfill their designated output assignments. This "Work Army" also continued to exist after the War, and it was not until recently that this army of laborers was recognized as participating in the War effort.

Thus, despite being humilated by deportation and still suffering the difficulties of their relocation, the Koreans of Kazakstan larbored hard during the war demonstrating their strong patriotism and contributing significantly to the preservation of their new homeland from the yoke of Fascism.


9. THE POST WAR YEARS


One would think that the honorable fulfillment of their social responsibility during World War II by the Koreans of Kazakstan through rigorous work in agriculture and other spheres of the Soviet economy would have brought peace to the Korean diaspora of the Republic. But, instead, the Koreans again became a pawn in the Soviet post-war politics of the Far East.

In the later years of the War, the Soviet Union began actively pursuing their own geo-political interests in preparation for the post-War order not only in Europe, but in Asia as well. In the geo-politics of Asia, the Russian Far East represented a place of great strategic significance. The Soviet leadership understood the importance of this region for influencing the political and economic life of the Korean peninsula. As a result, Korea became an important arena in post-World War II geopolitics. If this peninsula had been historically a meeting place of different races and civilizations, now it was becoming the battle ground of competing ideologies. It was this ideological battle that left Korea without independence after the end of Japanese colonialism in the country. Instead, the nation-state became divided at the "38th parallell."

The Koreans of Kazakstan lived through many hard times. If in 1937 they were deported from the Far East "in an attempt to cease Japanese espionage," then, ten years later in 1946, many of them were returned to the Far East, to the Primorski region, the Khabarovsk area, the island of Sakhalin, and even to North Korea in order to propagate Soviet ideology on the peninsula of their homeland.

These events created many problems for the Korean diaspora of Kazakstan. Besides being drawn into the Korean conflict, the Koreans of Kazakstan were also robbed of many of their best intellectuals who were sent back to the Far East or Northern Korea because it was they who had the strongest command of the Korean language. It was yet another great loss for the Korean diaspora in Kazakstan whose lives had been one long trail of tragedies.

However, despite these losses, the Koreans continued to survive through their persistence, work habits, and courage. They continued to find ways to perserve their people's pride especially through heroic hard work that has seen no equivilant. In the post-War years, the Koreans continued to make great contributions to the development of agriculture in Kazakstan. In 1949, in the Kyzyl Orda oblast' alone, 14 Koreans were honored with the order of "Hero of Labor." Of these, 13 received this honor for the production of rice. In 1950, in the same oblast', 17 Koreans were decorated with this order for their role in rice production. Koreans also contributed significantly to the production of grain and beets on the Karatal'skii tracts of land of the Taldi-Kurgan oblast'. In 1948, for example, 21 Koreans received medals as "Heroes of Labor" in the Karatal'ski raion for their production of grain and beets.

In the 1950s, Koreans also became more involved in cotton production on the vast fields of Dzhetsai in the Chimkent oblast'. Having been relocated there from the Kyzyl Orda and Taldi-Kurgan oblast's, Koreans proved to also be good cotton workers. On formerly uninhabited land on the edges of the desert, they helped to establish a thriving cotton producing industry, founding such collective farms as "The Road to Communism," "The Dawn of Communism," "The Third International," "Progress," and "Pakhta-Aral." Dozens of Koreans became masters of their new agricultural specialty, a fourth of whom were honored as "Heroes of Labor."

Korean agriculturalists also met great successes in their production of vegitables. The accomplishments of such progressive vegitable cultivating kolkhozes as "Lenin's Path" in the Karatal'skii raion of the Taldi-Kurgan oblast' were well known throughout the Republic. The results of the collective's production activities were even exhibited at the National Economic Exhibition of the USSR in Moscow from 1952-1956. For their efforts in the harvesting of sugar beets and melons, 5 Koreans were given the honor of "Hero of Labor," 8 were given the "Order of Lenin," 13 were honored with the order of "The Red Banner of Labor," and 39 received other medals.

Koreans also made great progress in the cultivation of onions in Kazakstan in the post-War years. In the beginning of the 1960s, Korean kolkhozes in the Karatal'skii raion of the Taldi-Kurgan oblast' alone provided 70% of the onions consumed in all of Kazakstan.

In 1957, likewise, in the Tselinogradski oblast' a Korean received the honor of "Hero of Labor" for his role in the development of agriculture and livestock, and another Korean from the Kustanaiskii oblast' received the same award for the cultivation of grain. In the 1960s, on the lower Ili river valley of the Alma-Ata oblast', it was decided to build the rice Sovkhoz "Bakhbakhtin" where Koreans again demonstrated their agricultural skills. In the years that followed, Koreans continued to be honored for their agricultural work with awards as well as in exhibitions at the National Economic Exhibition of the Soviet Union and in the "Gold Book of Kazakstan Honors." In total, 67 Koreans have been honored over the years as "Heroes of Labor."

Organizational skills and high educational standards also prepared many Koreans for careers as specialists and supervisors in the industrial and governmental sectors. Many of them were honored with the prestigeous orders of the "Lenin Prize" and the "State Prize." Furthermore, over 150 Koreans were recognized with different honors for their long years of service in industry, agriculture, construction, architecture, and other sectors of the economy.

In addition, Koreans played important roles in the development of science, academic research, art, literature, education, health care, and sports during the post-War years. By the early 1970s, there were over 200 Koreans working as professors and instructors in Kazakstan's universities and institutes.

One of the most important events in the lives of Kazakstan's Koreans, and in the lives of other "repressed nationalities," was the decision to no longer limit their movement throughout the USSR. Until 1953, Koreans and many other nationalities had special stamps in their passports that limited their mobility and served as a general mark of humiliation. With the decision to remove these stamps in 1953, the Koreans of Kazakstan took the opportunity to develop the strength of their diaspora. In particular, they worked to develop their native language, national education, and national newspaper.

Likewise, Koreans at this time worked to have their rehabilitation as honorable citizens of the Soviet Union recognized. In 1957-58, Koreans began to write letters to the highest organs of the USSR and Kazakstan requesting that their general status, both as individuals and as a group, be rehabilitated. There emerged an entire "rehabilitation movement" among the Koreans of Kazakstan, and they succeeded in getting the state to adopt new measures for "the strengthening of cultural institutions among the Korean people." While this movement acheived some successes and established some temporary institutions of importance, the government mostly ignored the primary question of rehabilitation.


10. THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATIONAL REVIVAL


In the 1960s and 1970s, the Koreans and all peoples of the Soviet Union were subjegated to great losses in the realm of national culture. Under Soviet ideology and a new policy encouraging the "merging of nationalities," they were forced to downplay their national specificities and culture. At the same time, Kazakstan maintained strong ties with the state of North Korea. As a result, the mere existence of a Korean diaspora in Kazakstan was even downplayed.

In 1985, the Soviet state began undergoing a new political tendency which was known as "Perestroika," or "Re-building." However, the policies of Perestroika were more words than action, and the general relations between the central government and Kazakstan changed very little. As a result, in December of 1987, a popular protest against central power emerged in Alma-Ata, Kazakstan which grew out of the discrepancies in Perestroika's supposed goals and actual actions. The protest, which began as a result of the central state apparatus' decision to change the leadership of Kazakstan centered around the desire for a sovereign and independent Kazakstan which would not need to bow before the power of Moscow. In the wake of these events, a Korean national revival began along with a series of other movements for cultural autonomy among Kazakstan's multi-national population.

After years of forced silence, the Koreans took the opportunity to actively lobby for the ability to develop their national customs, traitions, language, and culture. Furthermore, Koreans in Kazakstan began a process of re-establishing their ties with their historical homeland on the Korean peninsula.

A central concern of this movement was the establishment of Korean national organizations. As a result, Koreans in Kazakstan founded dozens of Korean cultural organizations on the Republican, oblast', city, and regional levels which served different populations of Koreans in different areas. While they differed in respects to local concerns, they served a single goal - the revival of the nation.

An important event in this popular movement was the First Annual Congress of the Koreans of Kazakstan which took place in Alma-Ata on March 17, 1990. At this congress, there were 96 participants from all over Kazakstan as well as representatives of Korean organizations from Moscow, Khabarovsk, Tashkent, and other cities. At this congress, they founded The Kazakstan Republican Association of Korean Cultural Centers. The congress elected professor G.B. Khan as the president of the Association. In 1990, this organization was renamed The Association of the Koreans of Kazakstan. Its present president is Iu.A. Tskhai.

Likewise, in 1989, after over half of a century since their deportation from the Far East, the Koreans of Kyzyl Orda celebrated for the first time a holiday of Korean Culture. They also began celebrating the traditional Korean New Year's holiday that is founded on the lunar calendar again.

Since 1989, the Koreans of Kazakstan have taken part in the World-Wide Festival of Koreans that takes place every other year in Seoul. Furthermore, the national revival helped to develop Korean language, and in 1990 and 1991, the first official seminars in the study of Korean language were established in Kazakstan. In Alma-Ata in 1990, the first "exhibition-contest" among Korean artists was also held.

One of the most important events in the cultural life of Kazakstan's Korean diaspora in recent years was the Festival of Korean Culture that was held on August 14th and 15th of 1994 in the city of Ushtobe in the Taldi-Kurgan oblast', one of the population centers of Kazakstans Korean population. August 14th was celebrated there as "The Day of Thanks to the Kazak People," a holiday of rememberance devoted to the thanks the Koreans of Kazakstan owed the Kazaks for their gracious help in 1937 during the first year of their relocation. August 15th was celebrated as "The Day of the Liberation of Korea." Kim Chan Gyn, the first ambassador of the Republic of Korea in Kazakstan, attended the festival and wrote on his return from Ushtobe to Alma-Ata: "Returning from there and looking at the wide fields of snow lining the road on both sides, I thought for a long time. I imagined how my countrymen had been put on trains in 1937 and sent to this unknown land. I imagined the trials and tribulations of my co-patriots. And, I thought that we must never forget the graciousness of the Kazaks who helped them through that difficult time and that we must pay them back with the same warmness."

Both the President of Kazakstan Nursultan Nazerbaev and the Preseident of the Republic of Korea Kim En Sam sent addresses via envoys to the festival.

In his message, the President of Kazakstan noted: "In Kazakstan, we honor the great work of our Korean citizens towards the development of our economic and cultural life and its future potential. We know the Koreans well as great masters of labor as well as important figures in the world of science, culture, and art. I would like to express my sincere confidence that our Korean citizens will always have a special place in our Republic and will be able to apply their national traits of wisdom, love of work, and desire for knowledge to their participation in the economic, social, cultural, and political activities of our state."

The President of the Republic of Korea spoke by an audio recording sent especially for the event from Korea. He stated: "My dear countrymen! Your long friendship with the peoples of Kazakstan is an important bridge in the heartfelt good-neighboor relations between our two countries. I hope that you will continue to work to develop Korean culture and traditions with pride and that you will also continue to fulfill your social obligations to the state of Kazakstan. I also hope that you are able to partake in the development and growth of our common homeland. As for our part, we guarantee that your historical homeland is prepared to help you and protect your peaceful and prosperous future in Kazakstan."

In Alma-Ata in 1995, a Festival of Korean Culture was again organized in memory of the 50th anniversary of the liberation of Korea and the 150th anniversary of the birth of the great Kazak poet Abai. It was at this festival that the first "Book of Words" from Abai, one of the spiritual leaders of the Kazak people, was translated into the Korean language.

In the 1990s, the Koreans of Kazakstan have also held several international forums on Korean Studies, established the Association of Korean Studies of Kazakstan, and have published numerous scholarly and fictional manuscripts about the life of their diaspora.

The diaspora's relations with Korea have served invaluably in the national revival. The Korean schools and institutes of higher learning have received books, dictionaries, computers, and other technical assistance from the Republic of Korea. The Republic of Korea has aided in the development of the Korean section of journalism and Oriental Studies at the State University of Kazakstan in the name of Al-Farabi, the Korean section of the Philosophy faculty of Almaty University in the name of Abai, and a number of other Korean sections within other institutes elsewhere in the Republic. Dozens of teachers from Korea are also presently working in Kazakstan, and numerous Korean students from Kazakstan have been able to study language and other subjects in Korean universities.

Since 1991, the Republic of Korea has also sponsored the Almaty Korean Center for Cultural Development which has given hundreds of Kazakstan's Koreans the opportunity to study computers, learn Korean language, musical instruments, and dance. Furthermore, since 1991, numerous churches have been opened with the help of Koreans from Korea and elsewhere. These religious institutions also play a large role in the teaching of Korean language.


11. APPROACHING 60 YEARS ON THE TERRITORY OF KAZAKSTAN


In accordance with Korean tradition, a 60th anniversary carries with it a very special meaning. It is a time of maturity and wisdom when a person begins to recall the events of his life.

Given the present day situation, it is especially interesting to look back on the events from which evolved the Korean social life in Kazakstan. Despite their difficult fate, there was a general growth in the level of education, and more and more Koreans studied in universities and institutes. As a result, the number of specialists grew.

Today, for every 1000 Koreans of fully employable age in the Republic, 252 have a higher education, and 113 have a secondary education. During the 60 years of their life in Kazakstan, the number of Koreans that are employed in political, scholarly, educational, and medical professions has grown expotentially as has the number of engineers, economists, lawyers, cultural workers, and other professional specialists.

Koreans are proud that from the moment that the state started to elect deputies to serve in the Supreme Soviet of the Kazakstan SSR, one of the first people to be elected was Pak Aleksei Andreevich who served in that capacity in 1950 and 1955 and who also was appointed a vice-chairman of the Tselinskii region department of Sovkhozes and a member of the agricultural commission of the Supreme Soviet of the Kazakstan SSR.

Kim Ella Ivanova from the game state farm "Ushtobinsk" in the karatal'skii region of the Taldi-Kurgan oblast' was also a deputy to the Supreme Soviet of the Kazak SSR from 1985 to 1989. Kim Il'ia Lukich was a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the Kazak SSR for four different sessions between 1958 and 1970. Likewise, Kim Nikolai Nikolaevich, who was also a recipient of the "State Prize" of the USSR was a deputy of the Supreme of Soviet of the Kazak SSR in 1990 where he worked as the vice-representative of the committee on industry, transport, and communications. Other Koreans who have served as representatives in high governmental posts include Kim Nikolai Ivanovich (1985), Kim Roza (1970), Kim Iurii Alekseevich (1993), Li Ten Khan (1975), Rem Gen Cher (1970), Tian Ol'ga (1955), Khvan Nikolai Grigor'evich (1963), Khegai Kseniia (1963), Shin Vera Vasil'evna (1970), and Chzhen Moisei Alekseevich (1980, 1985, and 1990). In recent years, the Korean director of of an Almaty middle school, Sher Raisa Petrovna, was elected to the Parlaiment of the Republic of Kazakstan in 1995.

Over the years, Koreans also served as the heads of various ministries and the supervisors of large-scale industrial enterprises that now fall under the guidance of the appartus of the President of the Republic of Kazakstan. Of special mention among these government workers are Kim Il'ia Lukich, a Doctor of economics, professor, and minister of finances who has been honored with the "Order of Lenin" among other state medals and Kim Georgii Vladimirovich who has served as the head of the Committee on National Politics.

In recent years, Korean representatives in the ministries have included: Kan Viktor Petrovich for the Ministry of Internal Affairs; the professor of economics Kim Afanasii Grigor'evich for the Ministry of Youth, Tourism, and Sports; Kim Ivan Vasil'evich for the Ministry of Local Industry; Kim Iurii Alekseevich for the Ministry of Justice; Pak Gennadii Nikolaevich for the Ministry of Bread Production; Khvan Vladimir Ivanovich for the Ministry of Meat and Dairy Products; Khegai Aleksei Iur'evich for the Ministry of Roads and Highways; and Ni Vladimir Vasil'evich for the Ministry of the Management of the Affairs of the President.

A few Koreans have even been promoted to the prestigeous position of General. Tskhai Boris Alekseevich was named a General-Mayor of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and Khegai Arkadii Iur'evich was named a General-Mayor of Justice as a State Aid to Justice of the 3rd Class.

Likewise, there have been many talanted and highly qualified specialists and supervisors of construction, engineering, and industry among the Koreans of Kazakstan. However, one of the most impressive parts of the Korean community remains its scholarly and creative intelligentsia. Today, about 400 Korean Candidates and Doctors of Science work in the Republic's universities, institutes, and other institutions of higher learning and research. This group, which is a source of great pride for Kazakstan's Korean diaspora, has made great strides in helping to develop the level of science and technology in the Republic.

The pride of the Korean scholarly community is Ni Leonid Pavlovich, a Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor, and Academic of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Kazakstan. For years, he worked as the director of the Institute of Metalurgy and Enrichment under the Academy of Sciences. He has also been honored with the "State Prize" of the USSR for his contributions to science and technology, with the rank of "A Distinguished Member of the Academy of Science," and with many other awards.

However, there have been many more distinguished Korean scholars in Kazakstan over the years. Doctor and Professor of Physics and Mathematics Kim Engvan Insugovich has been honored as a "Correspondent Member of the Academy of Sciences" and as a "Distiguished Scientist" for his work as the Director of the Department of High Mathematics at Kazakstan State University and for his contribution as the supervisor of the laboratory of the Institute of Mathematics and Mechanics under the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Kazkastan.

Doctor and Professor of Geology Li Vitalii Gavrilovich received the "State Prize" of the USSR for his 20 years of service as Vice-Director of the Institute of Geology of the Academy of Sciences and for his acheivements in geological research.

Doctor and Professor of Agricultural Sciences Pak David Nikolaevich was also awarded the "State Prize" of the USSR and was given the rank of "A Distinguished Member of the Academy of Science" for his over 20 years of service as the Director of the Department of Selection and Breeding of Milk-Producing Livestock at the Kazakstan Institute of Livestock.

Doctor and Professor of Agricultural Sciences Tsoi Lavrentii Ivanovich was awarded the "State Prize" of the USSR in 1970 and given the rank of a "Distinguished Zoologist" for his work directing the Department of Sheep-Herding at the Alma-Ata Institute of Zoology and Vetrinary Sciences.

The Doctor and Professor of Economics Li Vitor Loikovich, whose scholarly career started at the Alma-Ata Institute of Public Economics after years as a farmer and teacher, now is the Rector of the Karaganda Cooperative Institute.

Today, over 40 Doctors and Professors work in the universities and institutes of the Republic of Kazakstan. Among them are: Khan Georgii Vasil'evich (history), Kvon Sergei Syn-Guvich (mining), Kim Orumbet Mefod'evich (medecine), Kim Oleg Gavrilovich (philosophy), Li Nikolai Nikolaevich (economics), Li Vladimir Aleksandrovich (physics and mathematics), Ligai Marina Alekseevna (medecine), Pak Alla Mikhailovna (chemistry), Pak Semen Mikhailovich (biology), Pak Ivan Timofeevich (technology), Pak Marat Aleksandrovich (physics and mathematics), Pak Sergei Pavlovich (technology), Ogai Elena Aleksandrovna (medecine), Ten Anna Nikolaevna (philosophy), Khan Gurii Borisovich (philosophy), Khan Oktiabr' Aleksandrovich (metalurgy), Khvan Mikhail Vasil'evich (biology), Tsoi Gilen Vasil'evich (medecine), Tsoi Viktor Samenovich (mining), Tskhai Sergei Mefod'evich (technology), Shim Pavel Semenovich (economics), and several others.

Other important Korean scholars who had in the past accomplished much in their careers at the Academy of Sciences of the USSR include: Academic Kim Maksim Pavlovich (history), Kim Georgii Fedorovich (history), Kim Syn Khva (history), Li Vladimir Fedorovich (history), Ni Aleksandr Leonidovich (physics an mathematics), Tsoi Iurii Alekseevich (technology), Iugai Gerasim Andreevich (philosophy) and others.

The successes of Koreans in sports is also well known. In the 1970s and 80s, the well known gymnast Kim Nelli was a regular on award podiums at the Olympic Games as well as at the World, European, and Kazakstan Championships. The present president of the Association of Koreans of Kazakstan, Tskhai Iurii Andreevich, was a distingushed boxing trainer who made important contributions to the development of boxing in the USSR and Kazakstan. Under his wing, an entire generation of talanted boxers were trained who went on to become Olympic medalists, European, Kazakstan, and Soviet champions.

As the apprentice of one of the most distingushed trainers in the USSR, Khvan Maia Undenovicha became a world champion and a world record holder in speed-skating. One must also mention the great contribution to Soviet soccer that was made by the senior coach of the Ust-Kamenogorsk team "Vostok," the Tseliograd team "Tselennik," and the Alma-Ata team "Kairat" Chen Ir Son (Chen Andrei).

Among the Koreans of Kazakstan, there have also been a number of talanted contractors and architectors. Several of the works of Korean contractors recieved commendations. Kim Vladimir, for example, was awarded the "State Prize" of the USSR for his work in constructing the Republic Palace in Kazkastan's capital city of Alma-Ata.

The great successes of the Korean diaspora must be attributed to the genetic and cultural legacy of their people which has served to promote such qualities as the love of work, persistence, and the pursuit of knowledge. However, one must also note the importance of the gains Koreans have made through their friendship with Kazaks and the other peoples of multi-national Kazakstan to the development of Korean culture in the Republic.


12. THE KOREAN THEATRE


The Korean Theatre has played and continues to play a special role in the national cultural life of the Koreans not only in Kazakstan but in the entire former Soviet Union. The theatre was founded on September 9, 1932 in Vladivostok. In the Far East, the Korean Theatre was able to present some of the most important works of theatre and drama. The theatre was founded by a large group of Koean intellectuals which included Li Gir Su, Tkhai Dian Chun, Kim Khia Un, En Sen Nen, Kim Din, Li Kham Dek, Tsoi Vondo, Kim Ik Su, Ten Khu Gem, Tsoi Gir Chun, Li Ten Khi, Ten Viktor, O Cheram, and others. Furthermore, the writers and translators Ten Men Khi and Pak Ir worked closely with the theatre in its early years.

In Vladivostok during the period between 1932 and 1937, a Korean acting group was formed and a group of young talanted playwrites emerged who together worked to make the first years of the theatre a great success. Some of the best works to appear at the theatre during that time include "A Story about the Girl Chun Khian," "Tian Khanmong" ("Eternal Invitation"), and "Harvest Love" which were all written and peformed by the Korean Theatre as a National Art Collective.

In 1937, the Far Eastern Korean Theatre was re-organized by the Soviet government using the excuse that it did not have an adequate base of spectators. A part of the theatre's members was sent to Kyzyl Orda and a part was sent to Tashkent where they founded two smaller Korean Musical and Dramatic Theatres in their resepective new "homes."

In the first years of this new theatre in Kazakstan, they produced Tkhai Dian Chun's play "Lucky People" (1939) which was about a Korean kolkhoz in Kazakstan and Korneichuk's play "The Slaughter of a Squadron" (1939).

During these first years of the new Kazakstan Korean Theatre, the lives of the troupe was closely connected with that of the other Koreans in the Republic as well as with those of the rest of Kazakstan's peoples. This is demonstrated by the early international repertoire of the theatre and the fact that, at first, it primarily performed for Korean kolkhozes.

With the beginning of World War II, the theatre began to reorganize its repertoire. From the 9th of July 1941, the theatre was called upon to include in its work "military themes." Hence, they began to produce plays and concerts which were primarily about the War. During the War, the theatre performed before evacuated populations as well as for the injured and the hospitalized. They also did their part in raising resources for the Red Army. On January 13, 1942, by decision of the Kazak SSR Sovnarkom, the Kyzyl Orda Korean Musical and Dramatic Theatre was moved to Ushtobe in the Karatal'skii raion of the Taldi-Kurgan oblast' "in an attempt to increase its audience and normalize its conditions for work." In 1950, the Tashkent Korean Theatre was disbanded and combined with that which now existed in Ushtobe (evidence as to the reason the state took this measure has not been found).

In Ushtobe, the theatre was placed in the building of a local Social Club which was in disrepair. The artists themselves, with the help of local Korean farmers, began building a separate building out of mud and stones. Its roof had constant leaks, its walls were filled with cracks, and the heating system did not work. In the winter, the artists "were forced to perform on a freezing stage as the audience sat in their coats and fur hats." Despite these difficulties, the theatre continued to exist and produce great works.

During the war in Ushtobe, the theatre produced Tkhai Dian Chun's play "Khom Von Do" (1942) about the legendary Korean partisan commander who helped to establish Soviet power in the Far East. In addition, they produced Finn's play "Petr of The Crimea" (1942), Kataev's drama "The Blue Hankercheif" (1943), and the plays of Simonov "Days and Nights" (1944) and "So It Be It" (1945).

After the end of the War, the chief playwrite of the theatre Tsai En produced his own play "A Joyful Life" (1949) about the successes of the Korean kolkhozes in Kazakstan. In addition, they continued to perform classical drama from outside the Korean community such as Ostrovskii's "The Storm" (1950), Gogol's "The Inspector" (1952), and Shakespear's "Othello" (1953). As the conflict on the Korean peninsula escallated in the 1950s, the theatre was called upon to also include this theme in their work resulting in the production of Tsai Dian Chun's "South of the 38th Parallel" (1950) and En Sen Nen's "Korea on Fire" (1952).

On March 25, 1955, the theatre's collective wrote a letter to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Kazakstan asking for help with the theatre's many problems. As a result, the government of Kazakstan agreed to raise the position of the theatre from that of the 3rd category to that of the 2nd category. A presentation of the theatre was also organized to be shown in Alma-Ata in the Fall of 1955, and study trips to Moscow and Leningrad were planned for 1956. Furthermore, the repair of the theatre's building was included in the Republic's Five Year Plan, and the theatre was given a GAZ-51 truck to help them with their work.

However, on May 30, 1959, the Soviet of Ministers of the Kazak SSR rectified an act to move the theatre back to Kyzyl Orda, making it again the Kyzyl Orda Korean Musical and Dramatic Theatre.

On March 22, 1962, another state directive renamed the theatre the Korean Musical and Dramatic Theatre given that it not only served Kyzyl Orda oblast', but the entire Korean population of the Soviet Union.

On December 7, 1962, a large number of the theatre's artists and workers were commended for "their work in the development of Korean Theatrical Culture" and received various honors and awards for their service. Kim Din and Li Kham Dek were honored with the prestigeous award of "People's Artists of the Kazak SSR," and Li En Su was named "A Distinguished Artist of the Kazak SSR." Honorable Mentions from the Supreme Soviet of the Kazak SSR were awarded to the theatre's Director Te Den Gu, to the Distinguished Artist of the Kazak SSR Tsoi Von Do, to the chief producer of the theatre and Distinguished Figure of Art of the Kazak SSR Tsai En, and to the Distinguished Artist of the Kazak SSR Pak Chun Seb. Special Honors from the Supreme Soviet of Kazakstan were given to dramatic producer and Distinguished Figure of Art of the Kazak SSR En Cen Nen, to Distinguished Artists of the Kazak SSR N.P. Li and Li Gir Su, to the Distinguished Actress of Theatre A. Li (Gen Khi), to the Distinguished Firgure of Art of the Kazak SSR and the theatre's chief set designer G.M. Kan, and to the actor Khe Khyn Dek. In the 1960s, the theatre troupe, in turn, accepted an entire new crop of young artists from the Tashkent Theatrical Instititute in the name of Ostrovskii and from the Alma-Ata Theatrical Art Institute.

On November 25, 1963, the Soviet of Ministers of the Kazak SSR adopted a protocal to help in the future development of the Korean Musical Dramatic Theatre. As a result, active January 1, 1964, the theatre was transfered from the oblast' level to the Republican level and was moved from Kyzyl Orda to the capital city of Kazakstan, Alma-Ata. Furthermore, by order of the Ministry of Culture of the Kazak SSR, the genre of speciality for the Korean State Republican Musical Dramatic Theatre was changed on January 8, 1968. From that point onward, it became a theatre of comedy.

It is significant that during the years of its existence in Kazakstan, the theatre produced plays with three different types of themes - Kazak, Soviet, and Korean. The first Korean productions of Kazak plays were: G. Musrepov's "Kozy Korpesh and Vaian Slu," K. Mukhamedzhanov's "A Bucket Under the Hat," M. Aueezov's "Karagoz" and "Koblandy," O. Vodykov's "Tragedy on the Kara Kum" and "The Family of Allan," and G. Mukhtarov's "I am Married to a Grandmother." They also produced many plays written by other Soviet authors such as: Baratashvili's "Dragonfly," Khamza's "The Bai and the the Batrak," Zhalkiev's "The Fate of the Father," Aitmatov's "My Sweetheart in the Red Scarf" and "The Mother Field," Karimov's "the Night of the Lunar Eclipse," and many others.

In 1982, during the "250th Anniversary of Kazakstan's Voluntary Annexation to Russia and the 60th Anniversary of the Establishment of the Soviet Union," the Korean Theatre for the first time in its 50 year history performed in Moscow. During its stay in Moscow, the theatre performed "A Story about the Girl Chun Khian," "The Living Buddah," "A Bow Before the Rabbit," "South of the 38th Parralell," and "Koblandy" as well as offering a concert program by the musical dance troupe "Ariran." Likewise, in 1982, for "its service to the development of Soviet theatrical art and as a recognition of its 50th anniversary" the theatre was awarded the order "A Mark of Distinction."

In September of 1992, the theatre celebrated its 60th anniversary and was recognized as "a breeding ground for the culture of the Koreans of Kazakstan which has played an invaluable role in the development of Korean language and culture."

During its existence, the Korean Theatre has served over 5 million spectators and has produced about 250 plays and concert programs. Korean playwrites in Kazakstan have written some 80 original plays and have translated about 70 plays written by Russian, Soviet, and international authors. For their role in the development of Korean theatrical art, Kim Din, Li Nikolai Petrovich, Kim Vladimir Egorovich, and Kim Rimma Ivanovna have been named "People's Artists of the Kazak SSR," and many more have received the honors of "Distinguished Figures of Art" and "Distinguished Artists."

In the creative work of the Korean theatre, concert programs have been of special importance since the establishment of the theatre. In the post-War years, it became necessary for the theatre group to create a musical group which, while independent, was a part of the theatre's collective. Thus, in 1956, the theatre's administration sent a letter to the Ministry of Culture concerning "the creation of a Korean National Musical Troupe under the direction of the Korean Theatre." While this measure was finally taken in 1960, it only came into its own after the theatre was moved to Almaty in 1969. At this time, on the foundation of the existing musical troupe, the theatre formed the Korean popular national music group "Ariran" which quickly became a favorite of Korean audiences throughout the Soviet Union.

The lions share of the musical art of the Koreans of Kazakstan was tied to the theatre and its productions. The musical scores of the theatre's plays, an essential part of all dramatic productions, were created by the Korean composers A.G. Li, O. Cheram, Pak Edin, V. Kim, and Ten Inmuk. These scores have become an important part of Korean popular music in Kazakstan. To understand the amount of music produced for plays, one merely has to look at the example of the 1957 theatre season when 12 new Korean songs were produced for the theatre. These songs' texts were written by En Sen Nen, Kim Kvan Khen, Li Gir Su, Kim Din, and others.

An extremely important role in the theatre's productions was also played by its set designer, the artist G.M. Kan who was named a "Distinguished Figure of Art of the Kazak SSR." The great care he put into creating national ornamentation for plays and concerts was always noticed by reviewers of the theatre's works who were inevitably impressed by his skills.

For all of its successes, it must also be mentioned that the Korean Theatre, like all institutions of Korean culture in Kazakstan, had its share of problems and difficulties throughout the history of its existence. These problems are known by all Koreans in Kazakstan who have been actively interested in the cultural life of their diaspora. In connection with the fall of the USSR, however, these problems became all the more grave. With the fall of the Soviet Union, the ensuing economic crisis in all of the post-Soviet states, and the resulting budget cuts in the realm of culture, the Korean theatre fell into complete financial crisis. Despite the help of the Republic of Korea, the actors of the Korean Theatre continue to reherse and perform on rented stages. While it is not easy to train actors on miserable pay, the theatre continues to be in existence and is trying to find ways to make ends meet in the new economy of the Republic of Kazakstan.

In October of 1996, the administration of the theatre was completely changed. Today, the administrative staff consists of the following individuals:

1. Director - Kim G.C.

2. Art Director - Son L.D.

3. Chief Producer - Khan Ia.

4. Vice-Producer - Tsoi E.N.

5. Organizational Producer - Li O.S.

6. Head of Literary Section - Li S.L.

7. Head of Organizational Section - Zhou Su De


At the same time as this change in the administration, the organizational structure of the theatre was altered, splitting it into three groups: Drama, Choreography, and Music. Many young and mature actors, dancers, and musicians have joined the theatre in recent years with the hopes of regaining its past mastery and glory.


13. THE KOREAN MEDIA


NEWSPAPERS

The first Soviet newspaper in the Korean language, "Avant-Guard" ("Senbon") was founded in the Far East in 1923. It printed information about the life, customs, traditions, and history of the Korean immigrants as well as news about socio-economic changes taking place in the lives of all inhabitants in the Far Eastern region of the USSR.

The correspondents and authors of the newspaper propagated among Koreans the ideals of literacy, knowledge, and the modernization of culture and agriculture. Many of the important figures in the Korean liberation movement both in Korea and in the Soviet Far East published articles in the newspaper. The genres of writing in the newspaper were varied including poems, stories, and historical essays. The newspaper helped to acquaint its readers with the life of a the entire population of the wide region of the Far East. It did not shy away from controversial political questions, and it served to guard the interests of the Koreans of the area.

After the deportation of the Koreans from the Far East to Central Asia an Kazkastan in 1937, the newspaper continued to publish in Kyzyl Orda but under a new name, "Lenin Kichi" ("The Leninist Banner"). Its first issue was published on May 15, 1938. At first, the newspaper was only distributed locally on the raion level, but later it was expanded to the status of an oblast' publication. The journalists at the paper worked hard to develop it as an example for the periodic press of minority nationalities. "Lenin Kichi" paid special attention to the difficult political and economic problems of the relocated Koreans as well as to the issues of developing their culture, literature, and language.

The influence of this newspaper on the mass population of Koreans in Kazakstan grew throughout the 1930s and 1940s. Thus, on January 1, 1954, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Kazakstan adopted a measure to expand the newspaper to the Republican level. While it was still published in Kyzyl Orda, it was now distributed in other areas heavily populated by Koreans in Kazakstan. In accordance, it was produced five times a week on four large newsprint pages in the format of the newspaper "Pravda," and its circulation was expanded to 7,000 copies per issue.

During World War II, the newspaper became an important part of the War effort among the Koreans. It printed numerous articles and pictures about the heroics of the Red Army in their struggle against fascist troops.

Likewise, in the post-War years, "Lenin Kichi" played an important organizational, propaganda, and activist role in the patriotic movement to develop the economy, expand agriculture, and improve inter-ethnic relations. It provided propaganda and analysis about the economic strategy of the post-War years, provided information about technological progress, and helped to train future cadres. The newspaper often printed material about the progress of industry and about initiatives to improve the effectiveness of workers and the quality of economic management as well as about the successes of such initiatives. It evaluated many of the difficult questions of Korean history and culture, criticized short-comings, and opened discussions about work relations and industry.

The journalists of the newspaper helped to inform teachers concerning events in the life of the USSR and abroad. They rose issues concerning the historical and social problems of the Koreans and served to aid in the development of the culture of the diaspora. Using the resources of their own journalists as well as the those of others, they kept close watch on the most important events in the lives of the Korean community.

In 1978, the central offices of "Lenin Kichi" were moved from Kyzyl Orda to Alma-Ata, and the paper officially became a part of the inter-Republican press, leading to its distribution among Koreans outside Kazakstan as well. In an effort to increase its readership, the paper also began publishing in both Korean and Russian. It soon became popular among the Russian language educated Koreans of the Soviet Union.

The government of Kazakstan recognized the important role of "Lenin Kichi" in the mobilization of the Korean population towards the goals of the state. In 1988, in accordance with the 50th anniversary of the first issue of "Lenin Kichi," the newspaper was given the order of "Friendship of the Peoples."

In the 1980s and 1990s, the newspaper began printing novels and stories written by Korean authors as well as controversial scholarly articles addressing the history of the deportation and forced relocation of the Koreans to Kazakstan. In 1991, "Lenin Kichi" was renamed "Koryo Il'bo" and became an international newspaper that is now published once a month. "Koryo Il'bo" has become the mouthpiece of the Korean diaspora of the former USSR. It is there that the diaspora learns of the most recent news locally and around the world.

In "Koryo Il'bo," one can read reports from the congresses and meetings of the Presidium of the Korean Association and other social organizations. In recent times, the newspaper has run a special series of memoirs elicited from the veterans of World War II, the participants in the "Work Army" of the 1940s, and those who have served time in the Stalinist prisons and Gulags. While the newspaper is presently going through financial difficulties, it continues to fulfill its important role in the Korean community. Among other things, "Koryo Il'bo" has served to educate the Korean diaspora of the former Soviet Union about many long repressed events in their difficult history.

In recent years, the problems of the Koreans of the former USSR have also become of great interest to people on the Korean peninsula. Both Koreas have recently begun to pay attention to their fellow countrymen in the Former Soviet Union and are eager to learn more about its long repressed history. Through this newspaper, they are able to find information they need for their research and literary works.

Despite the difficult fate of the community, "Koryo Il'bo" continues to serve the diaspora. It serves an important role in the preservation of the Korean language, and enjoys much authority in the community. The newspaper's present chief editor is the writer Ian Von Sik.


RADIO


Korean radio also has a unique history of its own. Before becoming an official and stable radio programing organ, the Republican Korean Radio had to make a long journey from the Far East to Kyzyl Orda and finally to Alma-Ata.

After the deportation, the Korean Radio in the Far East was closed. However, Koreans wrote letters to authorities in Kazakstan requesting the establishment of regular radio programing in the Korean language in the Republic. As a result, a Korean radio program was opened in Kyzyl Orda, but its frequency was only received in one oblast'. Koreans, however, lived in large numbers in several oblast's throughout Kazakstan: the Alma-Ata oblast', the Dzhambul oblast', the Tali-Kurgan oblast', the Chimket oblast', etc. Thus, Koreans began agitating for the transfer of the radio program to the Republican level.

Finally, only on May 16, 1984, a 30 minute Korean language radio program was begun in Alma-Ata. At that time, the program was broadcasted twice a week, and each program only lasted 30 minutes. This was little time to carry out the information service needed by the Korean community. The radio needed to report local and international news, discuss issues of importance in the life of the Koreans of the Republic, and provide information about the history and culture of the diaspora.

Today, the situation has improved slightly. At the moment, the Korean radio programing broadcasts in the Korean language four times a week for 20 to 30 minutes a program. The themes of the programing are varied - radio theatre from the works of Korean playwrites, "school and family," "student life," news from the Korean peninsula, and the study of the Korean language to mention a few.

The relations between Kazakstan's Korean radio and international radio stations is growing, in particular through connections begun in 1989 with the Corporation of Radio and Television Broadcasting of the Republic of Korea (KBS). Since 1994, the Korean Radio has begun broadcasting internationally to the USA, Japan, Korea, Russia, and the Republics of Central Asia.

The Republic of Korea has helped significantly in the recent development of the Korean Radio of Kazakstan. From Seoul, they have sent new tape recorders, cassettes, microphones, and other materials. This helps the radio provide further information to the diaspora about their historical homeland and the life of Koreans on the Korean peninsula. At the present moment, the staff of the Korean Radio consists of five people headed by its chief editor Kim T.N.

On the Korean radio, one can hear well known Korean scholars, writers, artists, and businessmen. One can also hear the rememberances of the older generation concerning the history of the 1937 deportation and the first difficult years of Koreans on Kazakstan's territory. Furthermore, the radio programing pays special attention to the present problems of the Koreans in Kazakstan.

TELEVISION

The medium of television has become one of the most important sources of information, propaganda, and education for the Korean diaspora of Kazakstan. It carries with it an especially mass and emotional appeal which is effective in the relaying of information.

The television studio of the Korean program "Koryo Saram" was founded in 1991 and broadcasted its first program on Febuary 4th of that year. At first, it was established as a short program about the life of Koreans in Kazakstan that was broadcast once a month. However, gradually the length of the program and its staff has increased. At present, nine people work for the television program which is broadcast for half an hour once a week.

The program "Koryo Saram" discusses the most important events in the cultural life of the Koreans of Kazakstan as well as political and economic news from the Korean peninsula. The primary genres that can be seen on the program include: informational programs, films, news reports, interviews, discussions, and talks given by local Koreans as well as by guests from their historical homeland.

Films, televised plays, and concerts occupy a special place in the programing as do the congresses and meetings of the social organizations of the Korean diaspora. The program also features Korean festivals and holidays as well as special musical programing.

With every year, the social importance of the television program "Koryo Saram" increases thanks to improvements in the sattelite connections which broadcast the program to a growing audience on a wide territory. Hence, "Koryo Saram" is becoming one of the most important aspects of Kazakstan's Korean media in large due to the hard work of its chief editor E.A. Kotova (Tsoi).

14. APPROACHING THE 21ST CENTURY (IN LIEU OF A CONCLUSION)

Thus, time marches ahead for the Koreans of Kazakstan. Many problems lie in the past, in the events of history, others lie ahead. Still, the Koreans of Kazakstan, as always, are trying to continue their lives and develop their community.

The history of the Koreans of Kazakstan is now laid in facts. It has had many different pages: bright and dark, tragedies and joys, but all of them have contributed to making the diaspora and all the people of Kazakstan what they are today. In history, there is no passive hegemony nor ultimate resistence. We all make our own history out of the circumstances that we are dealt. As such, our history is the work of our people and our forefathers, and its result is a society which looks at its past, on the one hand, with warm feelings of nolstalgia and, on the other hand, with righteousness that they have lived through the most difficult of times and became stronger for it.

This having been said, how will the Koreans of Kazakstan approach the 21st century? What horizons await this diaspora which has made the journey from one end of Asia to the other making Kazakstan the new homeland for themselves and their children? These are difficult questions which time can only answer. But, one can say with certainty that the Koreans of Kazakstan will continue to build upon their unique history which is connected to their historical homeland in Korea, to the land to which their ancestors emigrated in the Russian Far East, and to Kazakstan where they have found themselves through forced deportation but also where they have made their homes. This history shows how strong the connections between Kazakstan and Korea are, especially given that the Kazaks and the other peoples of the multi-national state of Kazakstan have gone out of their way to allow the Koreans here to build their own life out of the tragedy of forced relocation and repression. That is something which Koreans will always remember and will pass on to future generations. It is something which gives Koreans the desire to continue to help develop Kazakstan as their home and to contribute to the country's efforts to create social and economic stability as well as peaceful and friendly inter-ethnic relations. The Koreans of Kazakstan have demonstrated the strength of their feeling of national honor in the past and will continue to do so in the future. The national identity of Kazakstan's Koreans has for years harbored itself inside the burning soul of a people who have undergone repression and surveillance, but with the freedoms of the present day, it is now able to blossom and help to foster a bright future for the multi-national palette that makes up the colors of their new homeland - the sovereign Republic of Kazakstan.

KOREANS HEROES OF LABOR NOT INCLUDED IN THE FIVE VOLUME "HEROES OF SOCIALIST LABOR - KAZAKSTANIS"

1. Kim De Khan

2. Kim Khe Suk

3. Kim Khak Giu

4. Kim Khan Gu

5. Kim Khon Vin

6. Li En Gu

7. Li Nadezhda

8. Pak Di Khen

9. Pak Don Er

10. Pak Nadezhda

11. Pak Nikolai Vasil'evich

12. Ten Diun Gir

13. Khvan Aleksandra Pavlovna

14. Khvan Chan Ir

15. Khe Ben Khi

16. Tsai Ivan

17. Tsai Chan Gyn

18. Tsai Chun Se

19. Shin Khen Mun

Kim German Nikolaevich is a Candidate of Historical Sciences, the Head of the DEparrtment of Korean Studies in the Institute of Oriental Studies under the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Kazakstan, Docent at the State University of Kazakstan in the name of Al-Farabi, and the President of the Kazakstan Association of Korean Studies.

He is the author of monographs and many other publications in Russian, English, and Korean languages on the socio-cultural development of the Koreans of Kazakstan as well as on the question of the culture of Korea and the Korean diaspora world-wide.

He has participated in international seminars and conferences in Seoul, Tokyo, Berlin, Warsaw, Stockholm and etc.

Kan Georgii Vasil'evich is a Doctor of Historical Sciences, a Professor at Almaty State University in the name of Abai, and the author of a monograph and many other scholarly publications on the history of the Koreans of Kazakstan, on the history of the formation of the ethnic make-up of the Republic, and on the problems of inter-ethnic relations. He has also participated in numerous international seminars and symposiums.

Men Dmitrii Vol'bonovich is a Candidate of Philosophical Sciences and Docent at the Kazaktan State Academy of Management. He studies the problems of the Korean diaspora in Kazakstan and the reuniting of the Korean peninsula. He has numerous publications and has participated in international conferences in Moscow, Tashkent, and Seoul.

An Viktor Ivanovich is a photo-correspondent for the Korean newspaper "Koryo Il'bo" and a member of the Union of Photograph Artists of Russia. He has participated in all-USSR and international photo exhibitions in Russia, Bulgaria, Germany, Estonia, the USA, Japan, the Republic of Korea, and other countries. He is the author of several personal photo-albums.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

In this book, we have used documents, reproductions, illustrations, and photographs from the following sources:

1. The Archive of the President of the Republic of Kazakstan

2. The Central State Archive of the Republic of Kazakstan

3. The Central State Archive of Photo and Cinematic Documents

4. The State Archive of the Alma-Ata Oblast'

5. The Archive of "Koryo Il'bo"

6 The Archive of the Korean Theatre

7. The Russian State Archive of Siberia and the Far East

8. The Central State Museum of the Republic of Kazakstan

9. The personal archives of Korean families in Kazakstan

10. The personal archives of the authors

11. Albaum, L.I. "Zhivopis' Afrisiaba." Tashkent, 1975.

12. "Heroes of Socialist Labor - Kazakstanis." Vol. 1-5. Alma-Ata, 1970, 1975.

13. Dzhanibekov, U. "Ekho." Almaty, 1991.

14. "The History of Kazakstan from Ancient Times to the Present: A Brief Sketch." Almaty, 1993.

15. Kan, G.B. "The Koreans of Kazakstan: An Historical Sketch." Almaty, 1994.

16. Kan, G.B. "The History of the Koreans of Kazakstan." Almaty, 1995.

17. Kim Syn Khva. "From the History of the Soviet Koreans." Alma-Ata, 1965.

18. Kim, G.N. and Men, D.B. "The History and Culture of the Koreans of Kazakstan." Almaty, 1995.

19. Kim, G.N. and Ross G.P. King. "The History, Culture, and Language of 'Koryo Saram'. (History and Bibliography)." Almaty, 1993.

20. Kim, I.F. "The Soviet Korean Theatre." Alma-Ata, 1982.

21. Kim, V.D. "Tumangan - A Border River...." Tashkent, 1994.

22. Kim, V.D. "Train 58." Tashkent, 1995.

23. Ki, M.T. "Korean Internationalists in the Struggle for Soviet Power in the Far East, 1918-1922." Moscow, 1979.

24. Ko Son Mu. "The Koreans of Central Asia." Helsinki, 1987.

25. "Korea." Seoul, 1993.

26. Li U Khe and Kim En Un. "The White Book of the Deportation of the Korean Population of Russia in the 1930s and 1940s." Moscow, 1992.

27. Pak, V.D. "Koreans in the Russian Empire." Moscow, 1993.

28. Pak, V.D. "The Koreans of the Soviet Far East, 1920-1930." Irkutsk, 1996.

29. "The First General Census of the Population of the Russian Empire, 1897." Volumes 81, 85, 86, 89. Spb, 1904, 1905.

30. "The All-Union Census of the Population of the USSR, 1926." Volumes 8 and 15. Moscow, 1928.

31. "The Resolutions of the First All-Kazak Meeting of National Minority Workers." Alma-Ata, 1930.

32. "Seoul: Past and Present." Seoul, 1984.

33. "The Soviet Koreans of Kazakstan: An Encyclopedia." Almaty, 1992.

34. "Totenaev, V. "Kazak Folk Games." Almaty, 1994.